Problem-based learning - Christina Cherry

4. Presentation of the method

4.1 Preliminary remark

Problem-based learning (PBL) enables extremely diverse designs in application. PBL’s claim lies in the sensible adaptation to the respective learning circumstances, which are subject to constant changes. “Problem-Based Learning is not static.” (Boud & Feletti 1997, p. 17) His strength lies in this explicit flexibility. The challenge hidden therein is the difficulty in precisely representing PBL. Barrows (1986, 1996, 2000) recognized the unclear terminology and tried again and again to define the varied concept.
“In spite of many variations of PBL that have evolved during its dissemination as a new method in medical education, a core model or basic definition with which others can be compared is needed. The original method developed at McMaster works well as this model. ”(Barrows 1996, p. 5)
In this sense, a presentation of problem-based learning (PBL) should be presented primarily based on the “McMaster Model”.

PBL defines specific characteristics best (Barrows 1996):

Learning is learner-centered [Learning is college student-centered].
Learning occurs in small student groups.
Teachers are facilitators or guides.
Problems form the organizing focus and stimulus for learning.
Problems are a vehicle for the development of problem-solving skills.
New information is acquired through self-directed learning.

Problem-oriented curricula are geared towards developing problem-solving skills. Accordingly, the learning objectives are to be formulated as skills or competences, not in the form of simple knowledge content. In the case of PBL curricula, the relevant competencies are also called key skills. Typical is the acquisition of the key skills shown below:

Key skills (after Weber 2004)

on subject competence:
The technical competence (in the sense of the necessary development of technical knowledge) arises in problem-oriented teaching from the respective context. The problem-oriented approach raises the question of deficits in the technical background and the possible solutions. The subject-systematic overview lies e.g. B. in manuals. Detailed questions can be called up via the table of contents or registers in the manuals, in the case of digitized media (databases) by checking key words. Appropriate reference options (for example, as an analog and digital school library supplemented by Internet access) must be available to the students with a view to the learning success. The factual competence is inconceivable here without the methods or media competence.

Methodological and media competence:
In the search for solutions, the handling of necessary media, in addition to the acquisition of information about experts, is very important. The learners should be able to obtain helpful information from the literature and the databases in order to independently find a suitable way to solve them. In addition, emphasis is usually placed on the content as well as the methodology when presenting the results. The constructivist approach explicitly demands methodological and media competence.

on social skills:
Learning is always an individual process, whereby social contexts have a stimulating effect. In addition, cooperative learning promotes the learning and practical community (social competence): The social learning environment becomes more important with problem-oriented access to learning content and corresponds in a special way to the interactionist constructivist approach according to Reich.

on personnel competence:
What is meant here is the competence to develop one’s own personality. The problem-oriented approach offers the possibility of a high level of activity among the learners. In conjunction with cooperative learning, this opens up a breadth for the development of so-called personnel competence.

on problem-solving competence:
Problem-solving competence is not primarily about accumulating knowledge and practicing procedures, but rather about getting to grips with the matter creatively. The learners have a lot of scope for their own assumptions, refutations, modifications and justifications. The problem-solving competence includes the change of perspective of the learners during the learning event as an observer, active participant and actor (cf. Reich’s constructivist didactics, Chapter 5). The focus here is on the construction of teaching content, which results from a combination of technical, methodological and social skills. In this way, learners discover and develop necessary skills and can easily transfer practical knowledge to specific situations.

on competence to act:
The action competence results from the problem solving competence. Based on the above-mentioned basic principle, the characteristic features and goals, we show below the constructivist understanding of roles at PBL.

Building on the key skills, different skills (skills) and thus other learning objectives are required in different contexts such as kindergarten, primary school or vocational school. According to the studies at McMaster University (Barrows 1986, 1996, 2000), the following main educational objectives can be derived for PBL:

Main educational goals (according to Barrows 1986, 1996, 2000):

Acquisition of a basis of related knowledge to the problem, So a structured knowledge base around the key words [cues], which contains the problem.
Development of a problem-solving process using a practical, concrete example, i.e. development of an effective and efficient problem-solving process (reasoning).
Developing effective skills for self-directed learning; Development of teamwork skills.
Increase motivation to learn.

Important aspects are included in these four main goals: For example, the acquisition of a solid knowledge base implies the ability to acquire information in a targeted manner, whereby dealing with media is a prerequisite for this. Creative thinking structures are encouraged to adequately transfer knowledge and skills into practice. The development of a differentiated professional and personal ability to critique lay the foundation for optimizing problem solving and for self-directed learning. Developing team skills includes improving communication skills and the Cooperation as well as a natural use of reflection (metacognition) for the learning process from a wide variety of perspectives. Human interaction in a multicultural society demands, among other things, the discussion and appreciation of ethical perspectives in diversity. All goals include appropriate methodological skills that support the entire process.

4.4 problem

The term “problem” should be seen relatively in connection with PBL; the problematic of a situation or a question is meant here. A situation is considered problematic if it is to be viewed in many ways; many components of this situation are interwoven and interrelated (according to Boud & Feletti 1997, p. 39).
The situations are called "ill-structured" or complex. They are characterized by a resolution that cannot be clearly predicted. Many approaches are possible and correct. As a rule, the solutions at PBL can always change due to new aspects and thus have an open end. This openness should be taken into account when planning problematic tasks. The more open a task is, the more difficult it can be for inexperienced people (both learning guides and learners) who are used to clearly predictable solution processes and results. Basically, authentic problems, that is, concrete situations of the “real world” are adopted or constructed. The biggest challenge of a PBL unit lies in the construction of the problem. The problem carries both the momentum and the development of the desired skills. The construction is therefore oriented towards the learners and should adequately challenge them in an appealing way.

PBL offers tasks with different functions for different areas of application. Van Meer (1994), Moust et al. (1999) and Weber (2004) distinguish between five types of tasks:

Problem task (looking for explanations for phenomena)
Study task (acquisition of basic knowledge)
Discussion task (promotion of critical judgment)
Strategy task (rule-based and reflexive approach)
Application task (application of acquired (knowledge); transfer)

to problem problem
The problem task is the classic PBL task. It promotes understanding of phenomena by resolving complex situations.

to study assignment
The study assignment specifies exactly what should be learned, where the necessary media are and what you have to pay attention to. The individual work should serve the acquisition of knowledge. These tasks are suitable as preparation for problem tasks that require specific learning material. The procedure presented in the diagram is helpful:

Course of a study assignment (according to Moust, Bouhuijs & Schmidt 1999, p. 38):

Read the assignment and think about what is required.
Agree on how to report in the next session (e.g. compare problem descriptions, discuss ambiguities in the text).
Work through the task in self-study.
Speak about your results in the class.

to application task
This task serves to transfer knowledge and understanding. It therefore lends itself to a study assignment. As a rule, it is worked out individually at home and then briefly discussed in a group.

Six steps to work on a discussion task (according to Moust, Bouhuijs & Schmidt 1999, p. 34):

Clarify unclear terms
Define the problem
Gather opinions and viewpoints
Arrange the opinions
Emphasize the key points
Formulate conclusions (maybe also learning objectives)

Typically at PBL, a learning group is presented with an exemplary, practical case study as a “paper case” (written case study), the selection of which depends on the objectives and prior knowledge of the learners. The multi-perspective examples are designed to train problem-solving skills in complex situations.
A classic problem unit is known as a “Problem-Based Learning Module” (PBLM). For each PBLM, a PBLM "Reader" (text) and a PBLM "User Guide" (operating instructions for the PBL module) are required. The reader presents the case study to the group. It contains the problem and, if necessary, central questions. In some cases, pictures or films supplement the problem situation.
Specific situations such as a visit to the zoo or the museum are very suitable for PBL. Unscheduled events, such as a dispute in the school playground, can also be resolved with the PBL concept.

Problem construction parameters
Adequate construction of suitable problems is at the center of PBL planning due to the particular challenge. To prepare the problem construction, independent parameters must be taken into account (Weber 2004, p. 90):

Training goal, central question
Competence area (personnel, social, technical, methodological competence)
type of task
Learning objective type and taxonomy
knowledge categories
foreknowledge
Cognitive conflict
“Challenge”, degree of difficulty
Attention, importance
Experiences, emotions
Independence, motivation
"Deep understanding"
Transfer, context
Domain knowledge, interdisciplinarity
Exemplary facts
Title, keywords [cues], language

taxonomies
For the creation of problems e.g. In some cases, a taxonomy of the learning levels, as was shown in the following diagram, but not used mechanically in the past, may also be helpful:

Taxonomy of the learning levels (according to Schmidt 2000/2001):

Cognitive dimension
(see Bloom et al. 1972)

Affective dimension
(see Krathwohl and others 1972) Psychomotor dimension
(Dave, see Meyer 1974)

1. Knowledge
1.1 of concrete details: terms, individual facts
1.2 ways and means of dealing with specific details: agreements, trends and sequences; Classifications and categories; Criteria, methodology
1.3 the universals and abstractions of an area: principles, generalizations; Theories, structures

2. understanding
2.1 Transfer
2.2 extrapolation

3. Application

4. Analysis of
4.1 elements;
4.2 relationships;
4.3 Organizational principles

5. Synthesis
5.1 creating uniform communication;
5.2 designing a plan or program for a series of operations;
5.3 Deriving a series of abstract relationships

6. Assessment
6.1 after inner clarity;
6.2 according to external criteria

1. Be aware, note
1.1 Awareness of it
1.2 Willingness to do so
1.3 designated attention

2. Respond
2.1 consent to respond;
2.2 Willingness to R.
2.3 Satisfaction with the R.

3. Values
3.1 Accepting a value
3.2 Prefer a value
3.3 Commitment to value

4. Organization
4.1 Understanding a value
4.2 Organization of a value system

5. Characterization by a value or a value structure
5.1 General setting
5.2 characterization
Crittin (2004):

6. Trade determined by values

1. Imitation
1.1 Imitation impulses
1.2 observable repetition

2. manipulation
2.1 Follow an instruction
2.2 selection
2.3 Consolidation of a course of action

3. Precision
3.1 Reproduce
3.2 Control

4. Structure of action
4.1 sequence
4.2 harmony

5. Naturalization
5.1 Automation
5.2 Interiorization

knowledge categories
The classification of knowledge into categories is helpful for the construction of case studies (based on WEBER 2004, p. 82):

Declarative knowledge: answers the question of "what" (know-what)
Process knowledge: answers the question of "how" (know-how)
Conditional knowledge: answers the question of "why" (know-why)
Reflexive knowledge: answers the question of "why" (know-why)

Control of a suitable problem construction
To control the development of a problem, DELISLE has created a checklist for teachers (free translation):

I have.

. a suitable content selected?

. possible resources set?

. a written opinion that

is suitable for learning development?

builds on the experience of the students?

based on the curriculum?

a variation of teaching-learning strategies and styles allowed?

describes an unstructured problem?

. the motivation for the activity is taken into account?

. developed a focusing question?

Checklist for developing a problem (according to DELISLE 1997, p.19)

4.5 Role understanding

Compared to traditional frontal teaching, the roles of students and teachers change significantly. While the teacher is no longer a lecturer, but instead supports the learners (pupils) in their search for their own ways and accompanies them in the development of their own learning goals, the learners should become more and more independent:

Role understanding (according to TORP & SAGE 1998, p. 65)

4.5.2 Role of the learner

Learners are provided with guidelines to support self-reliant learning in terms of knowledge acquisition, learning difficulties and decision making. They test and practice self-directed work based on the motivating problem, formulating and implementing their own learning goals. Learners are required to use their resources and share with others. By constantly supporting and regulating each other, you are always a teacher. At the same time, they should integrate themselves into the social group of the small group in order to expand communication and social behavior in the team through technical discussions. Another important task is metacognition. A differentiated self-assessment results from self and external perception with appropriate evaluation. With the critical distance to technical content, the learners should experience the approach of objectified or scientific work.

4.5.3 Role of the learning assistant

Preliminary note
The task of the teacher changes from traditional teaching to constructive accompaniment. The teacher is called "Guide" (facilitator), "Facilitator" (facilitator) or – as already mentioned – in the usual way in vocational training and in studies "Tutor" according to his new function. In German, the term learning companion is particularly suitable. He reluctantly favors the planning and implementation of learning activities by asking learners questions that encourage better understanding and handling of the problem. The intensity of this support in the learning process can be regulated differently (according to HERON 1989, 1993, SAVIN-BADEN 2003):

The hierarchical mode: The learning supervisor controls the learning process, supports the group’s objectives, assumes responsibility for the group feeling and promotes the structuring of learning.
The co-operative mode: Here, the ability to work in a team is trusted by the learners working independently. The learning companion is at your side as a consultant and promotes access to your own resources by supporting you in learning how to learn and how to deal with difficulties independently. He shares their point of view, which he accepts as one of many possibilities.
The autonomous mode: The learning companion respects the autonomy of the group by not taking on any tasks for them and leaving them with all responsibility for their learning process and coping with conflicts. Its task is to provide space and freedom in which students can learn independently.

The learning companion should have written instructions on problem design, which – in addition to special necessary learning resources – contain information about the expected learning objectives of the learners as well as all special aspects regarding unusual perspectives. With this information, the learning guide leads the learners through questions and challenges to a metacognitive level so that they can formulate their learning objectives in accordance with the requirements of the problem. An intervention means a balancing act between setting meaningful impulses or disturbing constructive learning dynamics. A high level of communication skills, coupled with a high level of empathy in the various approaches of the learners, is required of the learning companion. In addition, he should have the appropriate methodological competence and overview in the department in order to achieve the necessary operational competence.
It seems that the best learning companion is someone who is fully familiar with the field of learning and has experience in the new role of support. The quality of the learning companion is crucial for the learning process (HOLMES & KAUFMANN 1994). "The importance of student-centered learning has to be fully understood by all the faculty involved in problem-based learning, particularly the tutors, to ensure that it is truly student-centered. ”(BARROWS 2000, p. 35) Targeted training for all participants is therefore an important prerequisite for the success of the opportunity, because untrained learning guides can unfavorably guide the learner’s thinking in many subtle ways. Therefore, advanced training or workshops are usually offered to prepare teachers thoroughly for the unusual role in problem-based learning.
The demanding activity of the learning assistant suggests regular supervision groups in which difficulties and experiences are exchanged and discussed.

"Peer Tutor"
McMaster supports the concept of the non-expert as a learning companion ["nonexpert" tutor], so that a return to the old role of the teacher is avoided. In this context the term "peer tutor" is used. "Peer tutors" are not subject experts, such as professors, but students (mostly from somewhat higher semesters) who accompany their fellow students in the manner described above. The "Novice Facilitator" corresponds to the "Peer Tutor". The term "Novice" is adopted from the "Cognitive Apprenticeship" (in the sense of the newcomer versus the master) and means the advanced beginner.

"Floating Facilitator"
The “McMaster Model” is based on small groups that rarely meet in a larger group. So far, seminars or teaching classes have been very large at many faculties or schools. There is not always a tutor available for each small group to lead discussions, answer questions and ensure that all participants participate equally. The "floating facilitator" model offers a good opportunity to support work in small groups for large courses or classes. For this purpose, the class is temporarily divided into small groups with four learners who work independently. For example, concrete experiences and observations or short texts serve as a basis for discussion. The task of the learning assistant during this phase is described as follows: The "Floating Facilitator" goes from group to group, asks questions and fathoms the understanding of the students (according to DUCH 2001, p. 41). His support particularly requires less independent groups; he should not stay too long with any one so that the other groups do not have to wait too long. In other parts of the lesson, the individual groups present their discussion results to the whole group. The design of the results can also include the presentation of projects or debates and discussions of the entire group. A change of small group work and activities in the whole class gives learners new suggestions for further questions. The learning assistant gains insight into their thinking and can summarize the essential results step by step. In this way it is possible to steer the learning process for all groups in a constructive direction and to ensure an appropriate level of the learning objectives. This task is usually easier for a lecturer or teacher than for a "peer tutor". But a "peer tutor" can also supervise several learning groups with the appropriate training as a "floating facilitator". Since this role places high demands, the effectiveness of a "peer floating facilitator" in the general school area should always be carefully examined.

4.6 Learning process

A classic PBL process refers to a module on special learning fields, which usually include several case studies. A case study typically spans a week, and the time frame can vary from model to model.
The learners then meet in small groups (approx. 5-7 people) two to three times a week with the tutor for 45 to 90 minutes. The casework is opened at the first meeting. A familiar, family atmosphere is a prerequisite for this. Verbalizing hunches, guesses and ideas to the group members is the condition for the success of PBL. Unusual ideas or spontaneous ideas are deliberately used as a resource and opportunity for controversial or structuring discussions. The start is very similar. Typically, all members of the group sit in a circle with the learning companion "as equals". In the middle is a board or alternatively a flip chart. A "reader" and a "writer" are appointed. The "clerk" divides the four traditional categories for PBL on the board:
One for "ideas", "facts", "learning objectives" and for "work orders". He has the difficult task of thinking along at the same time and noting down all the contributions:

PBL visualization (according to BARROWS 2000, p. 55):

Ideas Facts

Learning goals

Work orders (future actions)

The learners mostly solve the case studies independently and independently. Each problem or case is analyzed in a similar way within a module. The resolution is usually formalized over a given sequence of steps.

4.6.2 Learning steps and seven leaps

The formalized course of the learning circle follows the four main sections that were described in the brief description of the PBL concept. The number of steps in the learning circle always varies from model to model. For example, there can be four as with the "Authentic McMaster Model" or eight as with "distributed Problem-Based Learning" (dPBL). However, the best known is the "seven jump" that is common with the "McMaster model".
The step sequence of "Authentic Problem-Based Learning" or the "McMaster Model" was interpreted at the Maastricht University as a "seven-step", which can be found today in many variations as a "seven-step". The following diagram shows a clear representation of the "seven jump":

"Seven jump" (after MOUST, BOUHUIJS & SCHMIDT 1999, p.22)

Step 1: "Clarify terms that you do not understand." For the case study, the learners clarify incomprehensible terms or formulations.
Step 2: “Define the problem.” The learners arrange their thoughts on the problem, identify its general nature and the associated factors.
to step 3: "Analyze the problem." Then there is a brainstorming session on the problem. Underlying causes, (patho-) mechanisms, possible solutions, areas of uncertainty or ignorance are visibly fixed in writing on the board for everyone.
Step 4: “Organize the ideas and deepen them systematically.” The group is now examining the considerations in detail. Other questions or considerations that arise during the discussion and cannot be clarified are also recorded on the board. Towards the end of the session, the tutor will focus the learners’ concentration on the essential questions for the further steps of their training.
Step 5: "Formulate learning goals." At this point, the learners decide individually or as a group which questions they want to pursue. They formulate their learning goals according to priorities. The first meeting ends after completing this fifth step.
Step 6: "Look for additional information outside the learning group." In the sixth step, the learners agreed who should take over which topics, sources or which material for viewing. The group divides and the learners now work individually or with others.
Step 7: “Synthesize and test the new information.” At the second meeting, learners are encouraged to reflect on what they learned on the board answering the questions from the first meeting. The seventh step includes a presentation and the subsequent evaluation. This step is partly divided into several meetings. The learners research all the answers to the questions, teach each other and compare their own considerations with those of their colleagues.

The new knowledge and understanding gained in this process makes it easier to test previous hypotheses. In addition to networking old and new knowledge, the focus of this casework is on reflection and initiating meaningful thought processes. A final result is not absolutely necessary at this point, especially not at the beginning of the training (BLIGH 1995).
At the end of each casework, self-evaluation, the evaluation of colleagues and the group is extremely important. The reflection relates to the technical learning process and social interaction. In this context, the quality of the learning assistant is also evaluated.
The following diagram provides a model for the sample timetable for the seven-step process. The process of PBL is adapted and modified according to the target group and the department:

Lectures on the new topic

2nd meeting
Step 6

1st meeting
Steps 1-5

4th meeting
evaluation

Supplementary course
(e.g. practical training)

Lectures on the subject self-study experts Contact

4.7 Assessment culture

A differentiated assessment or assessment from different perspectives is usually called evaluation at PBL. This is the key to PBL’s success. The evaluation is very complex and traditionally belongs to the PBL concept (e.g. Barrows 1980, 1996; 2000; Delisle 1997; Lambros 2002, 2004; Weber 2004).
The PBL quality criteria for an evaluation are briefly mentioned below. The four forms of evaluation that have proven their worth in the PBL learning process are then described: self-evaluation, peer evaluation, formative and summative evaluation. Then, according to the required standardization, usual evaluation scales are presented. Tests are not absolutely necessary here. However, they can be appropriately included as an evaluation tool. Therefore, suitable forms of examination are explained for PBL. Fundamentally, the evaluation focuses on the developability of the learners, the group as a team, the teaching staff and the institutional framework.

Barrows (1980, pp. 114-115; 2000) has suggested adding feasibility as a fourth criterion to the quality criteria of objectivity, validity and reliability that are common in education.

self-evaluation
The self-evaluation is usually carried out in a standardized manner after each problem and after each module. The ability to adequately assess one’s own learning progress and that of others is fundamental to the development of the ability for lifelong self-directed learning (Weber 2004).

Self-evaluation from the learner’s perspective: The learner assesses his activity as a self-directed learner, the productivity in problem solving, the contribution to the learning climate and the own learning development in relation to the required competencies.
Self-evaluation from the perspective of the learning assistant: The learning companion evaluates the support of the learners, the enabling and facilitating of the learning process and the organization.
Self-evaluation of the training institution: The institution focuses the parameters of the self-evaluation on goals and values, modules, organization, cooperation, institutional requirements (such as sufficient number of rooms, a correspondingly well-stocked library, access to the Internet, handling resources and contact with other institutions)..
Instruments for self-evaluation: In addition to the standardized assessment sheets, the “portfolio” offers learners and learning assistants helpful support for self-evaluation. It contains – comparable to an artist’s portfolio – representative works such as presentations, mind maps, multimedia products or presentations. The meaningfulness of a “portfolio” is very well founded because it resembles an educational biography.

Peer evaluation
The self-evaluation is then compared using the external evaluation. The assessment by fellow students, the peer evaluation, is of great importance in addition to that of the learning companion. Mutual feedback promotes adequate self and external assessment.

Formative evaluation
A matter of course is the feedback in an assessment interview during the solution process, for example after setting the learning objectives. It is referred to as a "formative" or "supportive" evaluation. The learning companion has assessment sheets available for the entire learning process, which he can use to directly reflect on the level of development of the learners. The criteria relate to competencies, motivation and cooperation. In this way, the learner is mirrored where he is and when he needs additional, specific learning.

Summative evaluation
At the end of a problem task and a module, learners and learning assistants assess the entire learning process with the help of assessment sheets. This assessment is called a summative evaluation. Self-evaluation and external evaluation are included here. The learners assess parameters of the learning process and the learning companion.
The learning guide should use standardized sheets to assess the learning process of each individual learner, the results and thus the level of learning and the development of skills, the effectiveness of the problem and the entire module. In the final discussion, the summative evaluation is reflected on. It can be supplemented by tests.
The institution collects and evaluates all evaluation sheets. The focus is on learning success, the suitability of problems, the quality of the learning guides and the satisfaction of everyone involved.

rating scales
Depending on the context, different evaluation scales are suitable for a standardized evaluation.
Written feedback
The evaluation is usually carried out using point scales from 1-5. The productivity of the learning group is a central point for learning. This example explains different evaluation scales:

We are a productive learning group

(In English or French-speaking countries, the scoring is often exactly the opposite: from 5 = “To an exemplary extent” to 1 = “not at all”)
The representation of the standardized parameters can be done in different ways:

The next table shows an assessment using symbols. This design is particularly suitable for children.

The scale with a division of three symbols is another variant, especially for very young children.

Verbal feedback
The so-called "flashing light" is suitable for quick oral feedback. Everyone in the group answers one after the other with a short sentence or two.
The shortest variant is answering via sign language. Everyone can give their assessment of a non-verbal sign at the same time. One possibility is the raised or lowered thumb. The position of the thumb up (good) or down (bad) shows the assessment. Gradations are possible through the thumb position to the side (medium). See also further in the method pool feedback and reflecting teams .

Preliminary note
At PBL, terms such as assessment, test, evaluation, qualification, learning objective control, performance assessment, competence measurement are often synonymous with exams that differ from a traditional procedure. Checking isolated facts, for example using multiple choice concepts or similarly certified tests, is unsuitable for PBL. Purely subject-oriented questions do not correspond to the skills learned at PBL. The exams make sense if, in accordance with the pedagogical goals, they take into account the skills for dealing with problems, understanding and reasoning when querying acquired knowledge. Reasoning should be the focus of the examination, whereby the above-mentioned quality criteria of the evaluation must be guaranteed. It should also be motivating and practical. In principle, all evaluations and exams should be well coordinated with PBL, otherwise the learners will conflict with the learning strategies and the positive effects of PBL will be prevented. There are numerous ways to sensibly arrange a PBL exam. Some common variants are listed below.

Oral exam: Oral exams are particularly good. The examiner can adjust to the examinee and assess his thoughts well (Barrows 2000, p. 102)

"Triple Jump": In the so-called "Triple Jump", a problem task is dealt with in a similar way as previously learned. It was developed at McMaster University in Canada (Barrows 2000, pp. 107-108) and is now part of many curricula in various forms. The principle is always the same. The "triple jump" consists of three parts: the first jump sets learning objectives after confronting a problem, the second consists of self-study of the learning objectives, while the third implies the presentation of the solution. Differences exist in the time limit of the examination procedure or the solution presentation etc. The examination is useful as an individual and a group examination.
Online exam: Exams can also be taken virtually. A problem-oriented e-learning program with integrated evaluation is a practicable variant, such as the procedure described above for the dPBL. The "triple jump" can also be used as a basis for the online process, but the actual implementation is quite complex.

Circuit test: Similar to circuit training, the circuit test has different stations with different test areas. This test corresponds to the “multiple station examination” conceived by Roland Harden in the late 1970s as “Objective Structured Clinical Examination” (OSCE) or “Clinical Practice Examination” (CPX) (Barrows 2000, p. 105). A problematic situation is staged accordingly: in medicine, for example, an emergency, an accident at the fire brigade, an escalating violence situation at school. The learners as a group have one and a half minutes of preparation time at each station, while the individual stations take about five to ten minutes. Overall, the participants work under time pressure. Everyone takes on a role in the implementation. So you have to organize yourself very well and quickly adapt to new situations.

Simulated situation: In the practical area, it is useful to work on simulated situations. Actors or instructed persons exemplarily simulate patients, clients, civil servants, classmates or corresponding persons. The examinee resolves the problem situation in the role play. The focus here is on the interaction. The test situation can be recorded with a video camera for objectification.

4.8 Curriculum

With a PBL curriculum, the greatest importance lies in the choice of problems: “The problems chosen represent the curriculum in problem-based learning.” (Barrows 2000, p. 121) The development of case studies is usually the task of problem designers or coordinators. The case studies are modularized so that one or more case studies result in a module. The modules are systematically built on one another. In the beginning, they are less complicated to gradually become more and more demanding. Responsibility for the teaching-learning process no longer rests on the shoulders of individual teachers, but is shared equally among all. Every teacher has to represent the basic attitude anchored in the curriculum, otherwise success is at risk (Albanese & Michell 1993). This means that the autonomy of the teacher to design the lessons individually according to personal ideas can be more or less restricted. This involves a great challenge for the entire team of teachers. A PBL curriculum requires change and constant development. The implementation and flexibility must therefore be shared by all teachers. Not every traditionally trained college of teachers can rely on the necessary resources. Corresponding further and advanced training to empower all individual teachers should take place before the start of a changeover, because the effectiveness of PBL can be hindered by individual teachers or trainers.
From the perspective of many PBL teachers, the positive impulses of PBL develop best if the entire curriculum is tailored to PBL (Barrows & Tamblyn 1980; Solomon 2005). Otherwise, learners would be irritated by various messages (e.g. on the role of the teacher) in learning. Since experience has shown that many decision-makers do not trust the effects of PBL, this results in a significantly higher acceptance of curricula that only partially integrate PBL. The resulting irritations are not always considered. On the other hand, the postulate of the variety of methods of constructivist didactics speaks against such a monomethodical application.

For the implementation, the pedagogical goals should first be determined, from which the respective design of the problem-based learning and the curriculum results. They shape the decision whether the teacher-centered or the student-centered PBL variant is suitable. The institution, the faculty, the Ministry of Education or an equivalent body are responsible for setting the educational goals.
Depending on the teaching and learning objectives, the following factors should be taken into account for the creation of the PBL curriculum and should be clarified institutionally:

Person or group that selects the case studies
Context for which the case study is selected
Form in which the case study is presented
Role understanding of the learner or learning companion
Resources to be used
Social form (group size etc.)
learning sequence
Assessment

The financial resources and the institutional requirements such as premises, media, teachers, and training and further education opportunities should also be considered.
For the design, it is recommended to divide the teaching content into learning areas that are to be taught with PBL. The subject teachers collect all important topics and contents from their special area to enable coordinators to construct case studies – according to the requirements. As a rule, modules that build on one another are designed for each semester. The faculty or institute members meet at regular intervals to evaluate the problems. It is checked whether they are suitable for new research results. In this way, the entire PBL design is always on the move and open to change.

Preliminary note
In the practical implementation of PBL in the tertiary education area, eight central variants (Savin-Baden 2004) emerge in the design of curricula, which are transferable to the other education areas:

Singular module [Singular module approach] The singular module is often built on the model of the McMaster design: Small groups of learners get a case study for a certain time in which they meet with the learning companion two or three times. The tutor is often to be understood as a resource and acts in the role of a “floating facilitator” (see Section 5.5.3.3). This module often differs significantly from the usual way of learning. There are examples in engineering studies, English literature (Savin-Baden 2004) or physiotherapy training at the vocational school for physiotherapy at GFEB mbH Munich.
PBL as “shoelaces” [Problem-based learning on a shoestring] This PBL model is very inexpensive and only refers to some parts of the course. It is supported by only a few tutors and is anchored in parts of the curriculum with the consent of the faculty, with PBL modules (usually based on McMaster modules) and subject-oriented phases taking place in succession. However, the problems are rather topic-based and not interdisciplinary. This form is very common, although it can be irritating and often frustrating for learners if there is insufficient coordination and problems that are actually relevant.
“Funnel mode” [The funnel approach] This curriculum is designed by a team or the institute management. In the first year, learners should use the "Lecture-Based Learning" to attend specialist lectures, tutorials and seminars in which the literature is given. The second year focuses on problem solving learning and in the third year the learners work with problem based learning. There are many reasons for this model. The lecturers feel responsible for the learners and believe that they should be prepared for PBL because self-directed learning is too demanding. They want to prevent PBL from failing by slowly introducing them to "lecture-based learning" and "problem solving learning" in order to create a broad knowledge base and to gradually develop the principles of PBL.
The foundational approach This mode is chosen for scientific and engineering curricula. There is a need for a knowledge base or special skills to solve problems. In the first year, the basics and concepts are taught using lectures, tutorials and laboratories. In the second, there is an introduction to the concept of PBL and the possibility of group-promoting activities. Learners should be able to deal with problems more easily. In this phase, the support provided by the tutor is intensive. In the third year, the learners finally get a problem directly from the industry or very authentic case studies. For this, the need for basic knowledge is assumed.
The two-track mode [The two-strand approach] The two-track mode exists in curricula, with which the tutors want to combine the best of PBL and other teaching-learning methods, especially for courses that include courses from other universities. For example, economists and social workers often have seminars at the law school that do not operate with PBL. In this way, two different educational strands run in parallel. In addition to PBL modules, complementary seminars without PBL are offered at the same time, which are prepared pedagogically in such a way that they do not have a counterproductive effect in the sense of PBL.
Patchwork PBL [Patchwork Problem-Based Learning] Patchwork PBL is a complex curricular variant that students often experience as difficult and confusing. The entire curriculum is based on PBL. However, different, independent modules are offered in parallel, the duration of which varies. This mode is mainly found in the United States. On the other hand, today this also corresponds to a requirement profile that has become typical for many professions.
The integrative mode [The integrated approach] The integrative mode is based on the principles of PBL not only in the sense of an educational strategy, but as a basic curricular setting. It corresponds to the spiral-shaped curriculum of the “McMaster Model”, which is made up of modules that build on one another. However, multiple-choice questions and inadequate exams can quickly undermine this integrative model.
The complex model [The complexity model] The complex model exists in university education. Various topics, disciplines and universities are linked together in the curriculum. This curriculum is understood as a pedagogical project for identity development with three parts: knowledge, action and personality. “The curricula in science and technology courses are heavily weighted towards the knowledge domain. The domains are held separately (there is little or no integration between the domains). The arts and humanities curricula are also heavily weighted by the self domain. In the professional subject areas, there is a high degree of integration across the three domains. ”(Barnett & Coates 2002; Savin-Baden 2004) The aim is a change of perspective due to the examination of other specialist areas. In this way, students in higher education have the opportunity to acquire knowledge, logical thinking and metacognition using different models and are able to independently evaluate their personal and professional skills. In this mode, the benefits of PBL unfold best.

4.7 Assessment culture

4.8 Curriculum

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